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This study analyzed the long-term impacts of converting Amazonian primary forest into low-intensity agroforests and high-intensity citrus monocultures on soil phosphorus cycling and microbial communities. Results indicate that while agroforest systems maintained physicochemical attributes similar to the original forest, intensive citrus cultivation significantly altered organic matter composition and increased phosphorus fractions through mineral fertilization.

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Abstract

Abstract Soil phosphorus (P) is a limiting factor for vegetation growth in the Amazon rainforest, where plants depend on microorganisms for organic matter cycling and nutrient uptake. While forest-to-agriculture conversion fundamentally reshapes plant-microbe-soil interactions and P cycling, these dynamics are further modulated by the intensity of land management. This study examined the 30-year effects of converting a primary forest into two contrasting systems: a low-intensity agroforest and a high-intensity citrus monoculture. We investigated how microbial and low molecular weight organic compounds (LMWC) composition interacted with soil physicochemical attributes, acid phosphatase activity, and P fractions (labile, moderately labile, non-labile, and residual). Agroforest soils retained physicochemical and enzymatic attributes similar to the primary forest, while soils of the citrus plantation showed increased P in all fractions due to mineral fertilization and reduced soil organic matter content, mainly in deeper layers. Microbial and LMWC composition patterns reflected land-use, with agroforest representing an intermediate state between primary forest and citrus monoculture. Pseudomonadota and nutrient-rich LMWC were more abundant in the agroforest, whereas Ascomycota and nutrient-poor LMWC predominated the citrus plantation. Genes related to “P acquisition” were more abundant in forest and agroforest soils, while genes related to “P-compound synthesis” were more abundant in the citrus plantation. Labile P was negatively correlated with genes related to microbial metabolism, suggesting that reduced P availability may induce a boost in microbial activity for internal P-cycling. These findings demonstrate that forest-to-agriculture conversion strongly affects microbial functions, with responses aligning with land-use intensity and LMWC resource availability. Nonetheless, microbes adapt by shifting strategies: prioritizing mineralization and solubilization or favoring biosynthesis depending on P availability.

Key findings

  • Agroforest soils retained physicochemical and enzymatic attributes comparable to primary forests, representing an intermediate ecological state.
  • Citrus plantation soils exhibited increased phosphorus in all fractions due to mineral fertilization, particularly affecting deeper soil layers.
  • Microbial and low molecular weight organic compound composition patterns were distinctively shaped by the intensity of land management.

Keywords

Soil waterMineralization (soil science)Organic matterPhosphorusSoil organic matterMicrobial population biology

Identifiers

DOI
10.1093/ismeco/ycag027
Journal
ISME Communications
Year
2026