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This study synthesizes a silicon/hard carbon composite from Citrus limon leaves to address the limitations of traditional graphite anodes in sodium-ion batteries. By incorporating intrinsic silicon doping, the material achieves expanded interlayer distances and increased defects that enhance sodium ion adsorption and mass transport. The optimized Si/HC-1100 electrode demonstrates a reversible capacity of approximately 261 mAh g⁻¹ with an initial Coulombic efficiency of 79.8%.

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Abstract

Traditional graphite‐based anode materials perform poorly in sodium‐ion battery (SIB) due to their insufficient interlayer spacing. Hard carbon has received much attention as anode material for SIBs. Biomass materials are a perfect source of hard carbon precursors due to their inherent benefits and ability to be renewed. Herein, silicon/hard carbon (Si/HC‐X) composite is synthesized from Citrus limon leaves as a useful anode material for SIBs. The intrinsic doping of silicon in carbon matrixes increases interlayer distance as well as defects, which promotes mass transportability and Na+ adsorption capacity. The optimized Si/HC‐1100 electrode shows ≈261 mAh g⁻¹ of reversible specific capacity with ≈79.8% initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE). Additionally, the composite exhibits ≈87.4% capacity retention at 200 mA g⁻¹ after 200 cycles. The plateau capacity increases from Si/HC‐900 to Si/HC‐1300 as the micro‐ and nanopores formation increases with increasing calcination temperature. The expanded‐interlayer distance contributes to the plateau capacities, whereas slope capacity arises due to adsorption of Na+ on defects and open pores. The galvanostatic intermittent titration technique, ex‐situ XRD and Raman analysis suggest “adsorption‐intercalation‐pore filling” mechanism, where intercalation contributes more to the plateau capacity of Si/HC‐1100. Moreover, the full‐cell (Si/HC‐1100||Na3V2(PO4)3) achieves a maximum 207 mAhg−1 reversible capacity from the anode side and remarkable cycle stability.

Key findings

  • Silicon doping within the carbon matrix effectively increases interlayer distance and creates defects, promoting Na+ adsorption capacity.
  • The composite electrode retains approximately 87.4% of its capacity after 200 cycles at a current density of 200 mA g⁻¹.
  • Calcination temperature controls micro- and nanopore formation, where expanded interlayers contribute to plateau capacity while defects drive slope capacity.

Keywords

Faraday efficiencySodiumCarbon fibersIonMechanism (biology)Biomass (ecology)

Identifiers

DOI
10.1002/batt.202500295
Journal
Batteries & Supercaps
Year
2025