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This study investigated the impact of reducing nitrogen fertilization combined with iron powder amendment on methane emissions from subtropical rice paddies over a four-year period. The results demonstrated that specific combinations of reduced nitrogen and iron application significantly decreased cumulative methane emissions compared to conventional practices.

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Abstract

ABSTRACT Methane (CH 4 ) emissions from flooded paddy fields, exacerbated by excessive nitrogen (N) fertilizer application, trigger serious climate challenges. The impact of reducing N fertilization rate combined with iron (Fe) amendment on CH 4 emissions remains unclear. This 4-year field study (2020–2023) investigated the effects of 100%, 80%, 60%, and 0% of the conventional N (urea and commercial organic manure) fertilization rate (100%N, 80%N, 60%N, and 0%N) as well as 80%, 60%, and 0% of the conventional N with the Fe powder (≥99% purity) amendment (80%N + Fe, 60%N + Fe, and 0%N + Fe) on CH 4 emissions from subtropical rice paddies. The results revealed that 60%N + Fe treatments decreased cumulative CH 4 emissions by 43.79% compared to the non-amended treatment, and by 57.33% in relative to the 100%N treatment in the 2023 rice season ( P 0.05). Meanwhile, Fe amendment significantly lowered the mcrA / pmoA ratio, which facilitated the decrease in CH 4 emissions. Community assembly analysis showed that Fe amendment enhanced stochastic processes in methanogens at 60% of conventional N but reduced dispersal at 80% of conventional N, with opposite trends for methanotrophs. Co-occurrence networks demonstrated increased connectivity and reduced modularity under Fe amendment. Moreover, soil Fe 2+ content and methanogen community structure, as critical drivers, were negatively correlated with CH 4 flux and cumulative emissions ( P 0.05). Taken together, Fe amendment is a potent strategy to mitigate CH 4 emissions under reduced N fertilization, offering a green production solution for global paddy systems. IMPORTANCE This study clarified the effects of Fe amendment on CH 4 emissions from subtropical paddy fields under various N fertilization rates through a 4-year in situ field experiment. We found that the Fe amendment combined with reduced N fertilization rates decreased CH 4 emissions, in particular under the 60% of conventional N fertilization rate. Furthermore, the Fe amendment lowered the mcrA / pmoA ratio. Moreover, the Fe amendment increased connectivity while reducing modularity in co-occurrence networks of methanogen communities. Soil Fe 2+ content and methanogen community structure were key drivers of CH 4 emissions. The findings provide an insight into the microbial mechanisms of mitigating CH 4 emission from flooded paddy soils through the Fe amendment.

Key findings

  • The 60%N + Fe treatment decreased cumulative CH4 emissions by 43.79% compared to the non-amended control in the 2023 season.
  • The same treatment reduced emissions by 57.33% relative to the 100% conventional nitrogen application (100%N).
  • Iron amendment alters soil microbial communities to mitigate methane production under reduced nitrogen fertilization.

Keywords

AmendmentMethanogenPaddy fieldSoil waterHuman fertilizationAgronomy

Identifiers

DOI
10.1128/spectrum.04000-25
Journal
Microbiology Spectrum
Year
2026